MEANING OF TAXONOMY
The word taxonomy is derived from the Greek word ‘taxis’ which means systematic classification. In this derivative sense taxonomy means "lawful or orderly arrangement". According to Webster's dictionary, the term taxonomy means classification, specially of animals and plants, according to their natural relationship.
WHAT ARE EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES?
The educational objectives are expressions of what a teacher hopes his/her students can accomplish as a result of his/her teaching. Educational objectives are policy statements of direction and provides foundation of the entire educative structure. The educational objectives represent the last stage which we want to achieve. Normally they are so detailed that they may be achieved or may not be achieved. For example, take the objective of child's moral and spiritual development. Such objectives are so vague, that it is not only difficult but impossible to achieve them in the educational structure and classroom conditions.
WHAT ARE INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES?
Contrary to the above, instructional objectives are very narrow and special. These objectives are specific, brief, clear, practical and achievable. These are pre-determined and made in such a manner that they are achieved within a specific time based ordinary teaching. Instructional objectives are the desired results of teaching and learning. It is because of this, it has also been given the name of teaching objectives.
An instructional objective is a statement that will describe what the learner will be able to do after completing the instruction. (Kibler, Kegla, Barker, Miles, 1974).
According to Dick and Carey (1990), a performance objective is a detailed description of what students will be able to do when they complete a unit of instruction. It is also referred to as a behavioral objective or an instructional objective.
Robert Mager (1984), in his book Preparing Instructional Objectives, describes an objective as "a collection of words and/or pictures and diagrams intended to let others know what you intend for your students to achieve" . An objective does not describe what the instructor will be doing, but instead the skills, knowledge, and attitudes that the instructor will be attempting to produce in learners.
- Instructional objectives are specific, measurable, short-term, observable student behaviors. They indicate the desirable knowledge, skills, or attitudes to be gained.
- An instructional objective is the focal point of a lesson plan. Objectives are the foundation upon which you can build lessons and assessments and instruction that you can prove meet your overall course or lesson goals.
- Think of objectives as tools you use to make sure you reach your goals. They are the arrows you shoot towards your target (goal).
- Begin with an understanding of the particular content to which the objectives will relate.
- The purpose of objectives is not to restrict spontaneity or constrain the vision of education in the discipline; but to ensure that learning is focused clearly enough that both students and teacher know what is going on, and so learning can be objectively measured. Different archers have different styles, so do different teachers. Thus, you can shoot your arrows (objectives) many ways. The important thing is that they reach your target (goals) and score that bullseye!
BLOOM'S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL/INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Prof. Benjamin S Bloom and his associate, University of Chicago developed and classified the domains of educational objectives. Bloom (1956) presented his taxonomy related to cognitive domain giving emphasis to the hierarchy of cognitive process in attaining knowledge and development of thinking. Later Krathwhol (1964) introduced affective domain and Simpson (1966) developed psychomotor domain. They described the hierarchical development of the three domains of the learner though instruction. This classification objective is known as Blooms taxonomy of educational objectives.
In his taxonomy Bloom tried to classify cognitive processes into six categories arranged from the lowest to the highest level of functioning. The categories or levels used were knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation.
REVISED BLOOM'S TAXONOMY (2001)
Some critics of Bloom taxonomy (cognitive) admitted the existence of this six categories, but questioned the existence of sequential hierarchical link. Some considered that three lowest levels are hierarchically ordered, but three higher levels are parallel. Other said that it is something better to move to application before introducing concepts. This thinking would seem to relate to the method of problem based learning.
With the passage of time, however, the scholars in this field felt a need of revising this taxonomy put up in 1956. During 1990's a new group of cognitive psychologists, L. W. Anderson, a former student of Bloom and D.R. Krathwohl, one of the co-authors of Bloom's book led a team of experts and worked on the task of the revision of the Bloom's taxonomy. As a result, Anderson and Krathwohl revised Bloom's original taxonomy in 2001, to make it more relevant to newer educational theories by combining both the cognitive process and knowledge dimensions.
1. COGNITIVE DOMAIN
The revised taxonomy (cognitive) also has six divisions of the cognitive processes much like the former one. However, it differs in nomenclature and functionability in some significant ways. In revised Bloom's taxonomy the following two changes are prominent:
(a) Changing the names of the six categories from noun to verb forms.
(b) Slightly rearranging the order.
The new taxonomy reflects a more active form of thinking and is is perhaps more accurate
The cognitive domain is focused on intellectual skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, and creating a knowledge base. It was the first domain created by the original group of Bloom’s researchers. The cognitive hierarchy spans from simple memorization designed to build the knowledge of learners, to creating something new based on previously-learned information. In this domain, learners are expected to progress linearly through the hierarchy, beginning at "remember" and ending at "create."
|
Bloom’s Taxonomy 1956 |
Anderson and Krathwohl’s Revised Taxonomy 2001 |
KEY WORDS (VERBS) |
|
KNOWLEDGE: Remembering or retrieving previously learned material. |
REMEMBERING: Recognizing or recalling knowledge from memory. Remembering is when memory is used to produce or retrieve definitions, facts, or lists, or to recite previously learned information. |
Defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states. |
|
COMPREHENSION: The ability to grasp or construct meaning from material. |
UNDERSTANDING: Constructing meaning from different types of functions be they written or graphic messages or activities like interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, or explaining |
Comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives an example, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates. |
|
APPLICATION: The ability to use learned material, or to implement material in new and concrete situations. |
APPLYING: Carrying out or using a procedure through executing, or implementing. Applying relates to or refers to situations where learned material is used through products like models, presentations, interviews or simulations. |
Applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses. |
|
ANALYSIS: The ability to break down or distinguish the parts of material into its components so that its organizational structure may be better understood. |
ANALYZING: Breaking materials or concepts into parts, determining how the parts relate to one another or how they interrelate, or how the parts relate to an overall structure or purpose. Mental actions included in this function are differentiating, organizing, and attributing, as well as being able to distinguish between the components or parts. When one is analyzing, he/she can illustrate this mental function by creating spreadsheets, surveys, charts, or diagrams, or graphic representations. |
Analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, infers, discriminates, identifies, distinguishes, illustrates, outlines, relates, selects, separates. |
|
SYNTHESIS: (Now Creating #6) The ability to put parts together to form a coherent or unique new whole. |
EVALUATING: Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing. Critiques, recommendations, and reports are some of the products that can be created to demonstrate the processes of evaluation. In the newer taxonomy, evaluating comes before creating as it is often a necessary part of the precursory behavior before one creates something. |
Appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports. |
|
EVALUATION: (Now #5) The ability to judge, check, and even critique the value of material for a given purpose. |
CREATING: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing. Creating requires users to put parts together in a new way, or synthesize parts into something new and different creating a new form or product. This process is the most difficult mental function in the new taxonomy. |
Categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes. |
In the chart shown, the higher the level, the presumably more complex mental operation is required. Higher levels are not necessarily more desirable than lower levels, because one cannot achieve the higher levels without an ability to use the lower levels. As one moves up into higher levels, however, the more applicable the skills are to those needed in daily life. The cognitive domain contains learning skills predominantly related to mental (thinking) processes.
2. AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, Masia, 1973) includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. Like cognitive objectives, affective objectives can also be divided into a hierarchy (according to Krathwohl). This area is concerned with feelings or emotions (and social/emotional learning and skills). Again, the taxonomy is arranged from simpler feelings to those that are more complex. This domain was first described in 1964 and as noted before is attributed to David Krathwohl as the primary author. The five major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:
|
SUBDOMAINS/CATEGORIES |
EXAMPLES |
KEY WORDS (VERBS) |
|
RECEIVING PHENOMENA: This refers to the learner’s sensitivity to the existence of stimuli – awareness, willingness to receive, or selected attention |
Listen attentively to others, Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced people. |
Asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses. |
|
RESPONDING TO PHENOMENA: Active participation on the part of the learners. Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation). |
Participates in class discussions. Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and practices them. |
Answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes. |
|
VALUING: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learner's overt behavior and are often identifiable. |
Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Is sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity). Shows the ability to solve problems. Proposes a plan to social improvement and follows through with commitment. Informs management on matters that one feels strongly about. |
Completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works. |
|
ORGANIZATION: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating a unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values. |
Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsible behavior. Accepts responsibility for one's behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems. Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self. |
Adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesizes. |
|
INTERNALIZING VALUES (CHARACTERIZATION): Has a value system that controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional). |
Shows self-reliance when working independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving. Displays a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revises judgments and changes behavior in light of new evidence. Values people for what they are, not how they look. |
Acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies. |
3. CONATIVE/ PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex: [The Simpson’s and Harrow’s psychomotor domains are especially useful for the development of children and young people, and for developing skills in adults that take people out of their comfort zones like . The Dave’s psychomotor domain is the simplest and generally easiest to apply in the corporate development environment. Both models offer different emotional perspectives and advantages. The subdomains/categories of E.J. Simpson (1972) psychomotor domain are as follows:
|
SUBDOMAINS/CATEGORIES |
EXAMPLES |
KEY WORDS (VERBS) |
|
PERCEPTION (AWARENESS): The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation |
Detects non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet. |
Chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects. |
|
SET: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person's response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets). |
Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognize one's abilities and limitations. Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation). NOTE: This subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related with the “Responding to phenomena” subdivision of the Affective domain. |
Begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers. |
|
GUIDED RESPONSE: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing. |
Performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model. Responds hand-signals of instructor while learning to operate a forklift. |
Copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds. |
|
MECHANISM (BASIC PROFICIENCY): This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency. |
Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a car. |
Assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches. |
|
COMPLEX OVERT RESPONSE (EXPERT): The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For example, players are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football, because they can tell by the feel o |
Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and accurately. Displays competence while playing the piano. |
Assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches. NOTE: The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc. |
|
ADAPTATION: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements. |
Responds effectively to unexpected experiences. Modifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Perform a task with a machine that it was not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task). |
Adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies. |
|
ORIGINATION: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills. |
Constructs a new theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training programming. Creates a new gymnastic routine. |
Arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates. |
